Marko Marelic, Dawn of recorded history

DAWN OF RECORDED HISTORY

(Napisao: gosp. Marko Marelić - S. Francisco - USA)
--> Marko Marelić osobna stranica

There is nearly a thousand years of historical record of the Adriatic area before the coming of the Croatians. The earliest known inhabitants of this territory were the Thracians, who spread out over the Balkan peninsula in the first half of the Iron Age and reached the Adriatic Sea. They were pushed back by the Illyrians who came from the northwest and settled in the western half of the peninsula. Some of them occupied the Julian Alps and descended into Lombardy where they were known as the Veneti, and eventually lent their name to Venice. The Illyrians did not remain undisturbed for long in their new country, and in the second half of the Iron Age they were attacked by oncoming Celts or Gauls, who occupied the region of the central Danube and the Sava River. By the 4th century before our era the Illyrians found themselves confined to the territory that today comprises Albania, Bosnia, Herzegovina, Dalmatia, part of Croatia and the Julian Alps. The Illyrians had three powerful tribes: Ardians, Dalmatians and Liburnians. The seat of the Ardians was near Boka Kotorska, which we know as Cattaro Bay, and their country extended south and east of that bay. The Dalmatians, with their center around Delminium, a town in western Bosnia, inhabited most of Dalmatia. Along the sea coast to the north lived the Liburnians, a tribe known for daring in navigation.

As the Illyrians became well established on the mainland and the sea coast, the Doric Greek colonizers spread from the island of Corcyra (Corfu) along the Albanian coast to the head of the Adriatic. At the beginning of the 4th century they established prosperous colonies on the islands of Vis, Hvar, Brach and Korcula. Gradually they also occupied parts of the sea coast and founded Tragurium (Trogir), Narona (Vis), Epetium (Strobrech near Split), Epidaurum (Tsavtat) and other cities. With the coming of the Greeks the civilization of the Hellenic world was introduced, to blossom forth during the Roman occupation.

The Romans were not interested in the eastern coast of the Adriatic until the latter part of the 3rd century B.C. At that time the Ardian branch of the Illyrian people developed a strong state with efficient armed forces and a fleet of warships, and Rome determined to curb the power of this vigorous neighbor. In 229 B.C. a strong army and navy was sent against the Illyrians, and after a year of struggle the Illyrian queen, Teuta, accepted humiliating terms. Soon after her death the Ardian power vanished. However, during the second Punic War, when Roman resources were depleted, the Illyrians organized a new state with its capital in Scutari and once again asserted their power on the Adriatic. This brought about a new war in which the Romans defeated Gentius, the new Illyrian king. The captured king and his family had to grace the triumph of the victor, Praetor Lucius Anitius in 167 B.C.

Roman Conquest

After the destruction of the Ardian State, Rome soon came into conflict the Delmatians (in Roman version -Dalmatians). After years of desperate struggle the Dalmatian capital of Delminium was taken by the Roman consul Publius Cornelius Scipio Nasica in 155 B.C. The Romans did not establish full control over the country, however, and the Delmatians joined with another Illyrian tribe, the Japudians, to offer a stubborn resistance to the Romans for another century. Rome undertook costly campaigns and more than once appeared to have conquered the natives, but as soon as they weakened their garrisons, the Delmatians would rise again and destroy their oppressors. Julius Caesar was twice in Dalmatia, without any intention of carrying on war against the Dalmatians. Since he was occupied with his Gallic wars, and later with his struggle against the Roman senate, he was not at first greatly interested in the Illyrian territory. After the battle of Pharsalus, however, where Caesar defeated his republican enemies, he sent Aulus Gabinius at the head of an army against the rebellious Delmatians and Japudians. This long campaign ended disastrously for the Romans when in the winter of 48-47 B.C. the Delmatians destroyed their army in a battle near Sibenik. What was left of the army fled and took refuge in the strong fortification of Salona (Solin), but the victorious rebels captured that fortification as well. A peace was soon arranged between the rebels and Julius Caesar, but in the confusion following the assassination of Caesar the Delmatians again attacked the Roman legions with great success.

In 35 B.C. after stamping out the opposition of the republicans, Octavian planned a serious campaign to subdue the rebellious Illyrians. Octavian himself took command of the army, was assisted by his best generals. The base of operations was at Senia (Senj), and the legions marched into the country of the Japudians. After stubborn resistance the Japudians lost their fortifications and the tribes west of the ridge of Kapela surrendered. The tribes east of Kapela continued the struggle and caused heavy losses to the advancing army. Octavian himself was wounded in a battle near Methulum (a place near Ogulin), which ended the heroic fight of the Illyrians.

After the submission of the Japudians, Octavian advanced against the neighboring Celts and their capital Segetisca (Roman: Siscia; Croatian: Sisak). The Roman army had to fight every step of the way. Segetisca was captured only after a siege of thirty days. From this point Octavian led his armies to Liburnia or northern Dalmatia. The people there were well prepared for the enemy and the conquest of their territory took two years (34-33 B.C.) The Romans had to lay siege to several towns before they could crush the most stubborn resistance being offered at Setovia (Sinj), the last Dalmatian stronghold. But in the end Illyricum was conquered and Octavian celebrated his victory with a triumph in 27 B.C.

In spite of this conquest a great rebellion broke out in the Illyrian territory in 6 A.D. This was the most spectacular rebellion in the history of the Roman Empire. It took Augustus three years to put it down. Since he himself was by this time an old man, he assigned the command of the huge armies to Tiberius, who was to be his successor on the throne. However, Tiberius' campaign was for a long time ineffective and his nephew Germanicus was sent to assist him in command. Augustus himself changed his residence to Ravenna during the campaign so that he could watch the military operations more closely. The Illyrians were put down definitely in 9 A.D., after three years of heroic struggle, known in history as "bellum Batonianum" or the war of the Batons, from the name of the two Illyrian leaders.

After the crushing of the Illyrian rebellion, the province heretofore called Illyricum was divided into two districts known as Pannonia and Dalmatia. As the Roman territory was increased in later times through new conquests, Pannonia itself was divided into four parts which were frequently renamed and redistributed. The capital of early Pannonia was Petovia (Ptuj) and that of Dalmatia was Salona (Solin). When the Roman Empire was divided after the death of Theodosius the Great (395) between his two sons, Arcadius and Honorius, the line of division between the Eastern and the Western Empire passed through the Illyrian and Pannonian territory. The four Pannonias and Dalmatia belonged to the western half, while provincia Praevalis, containing parts of Bosnia, Herzegovina, Sanjak, and Albania, was assigned to the Eastern Empire. The more important towns in Pannonia during the Roman occupation were Aqua Viva (Varazdin), Andautonia (a place near Zagreb), Siscia (Sisak), Servitium (Gradiska), Aquae Balissae (Daruvar), Marsonia (Brod on the Sava), Mursa (Ossijek), Cibalae (Vinkovci), Cusum (Petrovaradin), Taurunum (Zemun), Syrmium (Mitrovica), Singidunum (Belgrade), Bassianae (Petrovci) and Sopianae (Pechuh). In Dalmatia they were Tragurium (Trogir), Iadera (Zadar), Aspalatum (Split), Epetium (Strobrech), Aenona (Nin), Epidaurum (Cavtat), Senia (Senj), Albona (Labin), etc. The more important islands were: Crexa (Tsres), Corcyra Nigra (Korcula), Curicum (Kerk), Arba (Rab), Pharus (Hvar), Pamodus (Pag), and Ladesta (Lastovo).

After ruthlessly crushing out all opposition in a conquered country, the Romans consolidated their power by a number of military measures. The occupation was completed by distribution of garrisons throughout the territory, especially in places of strategic importance. In order to provide easier access to the affected area in case of revolt, the Romans built many roads and bridges throughout the country. Alongside the roads they erected patrol houses or military stations. The rivers were patrolled by fleets of naval craft. Fortifications were built in danger zones. Pursuing their military policy, the Romans recruited young men in the conquered territory, sending them to distant parts of the Empire for military service. The service lasted nearly a lifetime and the recruits in most cases never returned to their homeland. Besides their task of oppression and conquest, the Roman soldiers had other functions in the consolidation of the Empire. They built roads bridges, and fortified camps which were the nuclei of the towns that were built around them. They brought with them the Roman cults, usually deifying the emperors and the city of Rome. They were the pioneers of Roman culture by spreading the Latin language to the most remote parts of the Empire.

After establishing the Roman power in a foreign land, the conqueror set out on a course of colonial exploitation. The wealth and luxury of the Romans depended upon their new subjects, and upon the variety and amount of the produce they could extract from a country. According to the Roman Law the land holdings of a province became the property of the Roman State, while the natives could merely rent the land by paying direct taxes (tributum) and an indirect tax (vectigal).

The foundation of the Roman tax system was laid by Augustus, who instituted a general census of the property and population of the Empire. The chief source of income from the direct taxes was the land tax (tributum), which was paid in money or in kind. The artisans and merchants had to pay income tax, while the serfs were paying head tax (tributum capitis). In the absence of legal heirs the property became forfeited in favor of the State (caduca), while 5% inheritance tax was collected when heirs took over the property.

An important source of income was duty on merchandise imported from foreign countries. In Dalmatia and the rest of Illyricum the Roman State drew its income from the mines. Gold mines were productive in Dalmatia and Bosnia, silver came from Bosnia (Domavia, now Srebrenica). Lead and iron mines were also exploited throughout Pannonia and Dalmatia. Marble and limestone quarries were operated in Dalmatia. In fact, the Roman State neglected no possibility in attempting to extract for its own benefit all the wealth of the country.

The population consisted of three strata: Greek colonists, who by the time of the Roman conquest became Romanized; the Roman merchants and officials; the Illyro-Celtic population which lived in the country devoting itself to farming. The natives remained poor and on the verge of slavery, while the Greek-Roman population of the towns was prosperous. What scraps of wealth the civil and military authorities left to the country after numerous levies of taxes and tributes were consumed by the class of merchants and traders in the city. The complex system of municipal administration and jurisdiction placed further obligations and burdens on the native population. In this way the poverty, insecurity and slavery of the Illyrian farmers served as a foundation of the wealth and luxury of the Greco-Roman cities. For a long time the countryside lived its own life, and it is not clear that Romanization was complete even by the time of the fall of the Roman Empire.

The founding and improvement of the towns and cities were the chief Roman contribution to the civilization of Dalmatia and Pannonia. The cities were built after their Roman models. In every town there was a forum surrounded by the town hall and public buildings. It was decorated with the statues of the emperors and men of distinction. Temples and public baths, the water supply, which came from an aqueduct, added to the glamour of the cities. The normal town or city was called municipium (municipality), while the name of great imperial cities was colonia (colony). There were two such cities in the Illyrian territory. One was Salona, assumed to be the birthplace of the Emperor Diocletian, and the other was Syrmium in eastern Pannonia. Both of these cities had imperial palaces, amphitheaters with gladiator shows, and arms factories, and also large populations at the height of their prosperity.

Early Christianity and the Barbarian Invasions

Traces of Christianity go back to the first century in Dalmatia, but the new faith spread with full momentum in the 3rd century of our era. The first bishopric was established in Salona and the first known bishop of this diocese, St. Venantius died the death of a martyr in Delminium around 257 A.D. At that time the persecutions of Christians were frequent, but the worst of them came after the edict of Diocletian in 304. Many believers in the Christian doctrine were put to death, and St. Domnius (Sv. Dujam), the bishop of Salona, together with many of his friends met violent deaths. The martyrdom of St. Anastasius (Sv. Ostash) also took place at this time. However, after the edict of Constantine in 314, Christianity made rapid strides all over Dalmatia and Pannonia. Many bishoprics were established. There were bishops in Syrmium, Singidunum (Belgrade), Bassianae, Cibalae, Mursia (Osijek) and Siscia. In the 4th century Arianism took hold, as indeed it did all over the lands of the Eastern Mediterranean. This was the teaching which insisted on the predominantly human nature of Jesus Christ. Bishop Valent of Mursia and Bishop Ursacius of Singidunum were leaders of the movement on Pannonia. Arianism was later denounced as a heresy and gradually died away.

By extending its frontiers so far from its Italian center, the Roman Empire lay open to attacks on a huge perimeter which it could not successfully defend in case of synchronous attacks. There were not only rebellions to contend with, but within the empire itself there were armed conflicts between the governors of various provinces or rival emperors. The attacks upon the empire came from two distant points: from Persians in Asia Minor, and from the northeastern parts of Europe where the various Germanic tribes pressed on the Roman frontiers with ever increasing vigor. Thus in the 3rd and 4th centuries Pannonia became a battleground on which the Roman Empire had to fight for its existence. It was on Pannonian territory that the doom of the empire was sealed, as the westward movement of the European peoples took the force of a migration. After the period of the Marcomannic Wars (166-181 A.D.) the Roman Empire was on the defensive, and was forced into many humiliating and dangerous compromises. The Roman army itself became diluted with barbarian troops which changed its spirit and undermined its fighting efficiency.

Next the emperors, under pressure, permitted the eastern Germanic Goths and the Carps, a Thracian tribe, to settle within the confines of the Empire. The Carps settled down between the rivers of Drava and Danube in lower Pannonia, while the Goths were permitted to occupy Mesia (Serbia and Bulgaria). After a certain period the Goths moved on westward, invaded the present Croatian territory and by skirting the northern part of Dalmatia, continued their journey of pillage and plunder into Italy. The emperors, unable to curb them, took them as allies. The worst visitation was that of the Asiatic Huns, who established themselves along the course of the lower and central Danube. Under the able administration of Attila, a huge empire was formed that connected central Asia with northeastern Europe. In command of a large and efficient army, Attila invaded the Balkans, raided Italy and penetrated into Gaul, where in 451 A.D. at Chalon-sur-Marne he met Aetius, the Roman general. There he was defeated by the Roman legions and their allies in an immense battle which has been justly termed one of the turning points of history. After the ravages of Attila's hordes, the empire could no longer regain its ancient power and vitality. The fatal outcome was only a matter of time, and indeed, the last Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, was dethroned in 476 A.D. by Odoacer, a Germanic chieftain.

The Coming of the Slavs

The power of Odoacer did not last long, because Pannonia and northern Italy were soon overrun by the Ostrogoths under the leadership of Theodoric, a favorite of Zenon, emperor of Byzantium. Odoacer lost his life during the siege of his capital, Ravenna, 493 A.D. After this victory Theodoric was proclaimed king of the Goths and Governor of Italy, Dalmatia and Pannonia. Theodoric's ambitions were directed eastward and he consolidated his power in Sirmium and western Mesia (Serbia). This established the Gothic rule in the entire Illyrian territory. Theodoric was also an ambitious civil administrator and aimed to restore the old security and prosperity of his lands. While the military organization was exclusively Gothic, he respected the civil authorities that were Roman. His reign, 493-526 A.D., saw the revival of prosperity and hope.

After the death of Theodoric the Gothic State soon collapsed. Dissensions and strife in the family of the late king, and the ambitious plan of Emperor Justinian to restore his power over the Gothic territory, caused a bitter and bloody struggle that lasted for twenty years, 536-555. At the end of this war the Gothic power was destroyed, and the emperor regained the Illyrian territory. However, the Byzantine authority itself soon came to an end.

As the Gothic masters of Illyricum were engaged in a desperate struggle with the armies of Emperor Justinian, the mass of the Slavic population from behind the Carpathian mountains descended in a continuous stream upon the low lands of the central Danube. From there they continued their journey south and west, thus penetrating the Balkan peninsula and the eastern Alpine region. The moment was propitious as the warring factions were busy destroying each other. Moreover, both the Gothic king and the emperor of Byzantium sought the aid of the newcomers in the struggle. Thus the Slavs and Avars penetrated into the areas south of the central Danube River and its tributaries. The struggle ended with the collapse of the Gothic State and the elimination from power of the Gothic element. Hence, the newcomers came under the largely nominal sovereignty of the emperor of Byzantium. This set of circumstances gave the Slavic tribes an opportunity to settle down peacefully on the chosen territory, or to continue their campaigns in alliance with the Avars, a Touranian people.

The cause of the Slavic migrations does not seem clear. There was hardly any reason for them to leave their prosperous households. They were either drawn by their military neighbors into the general westward movement of the period, or left their homes on their own initiative due to internal strife and clashed. From their Germanic neighbors the Slavs soon learned the arts of war, efficient army organization, use of better weapons, and especially the advantages of consolidating several tribes into a powerful unit under the authority of a prince (knez, knyaz, kuning).

The New Homeland of the Slavs

After the capture and destruction of the imperial city of Sirmium in 582 by the forces of Bayan, the powerful Avarian leader, a long and bitter struggle ensued between the Avars and the Byzantine Empire. During this period the bulk of Slavic migrations to the Balkans took place. This is an historical event of the first magnitude, which changed the ethnographical picture of the old Thraco-Illyrian territory. The Slavs took part in the sweeping incursions of the long Avarian campaigns, devastating the peninsula down to Salonica (Solun) and Constantinople. In 626 the combined force of Slavs and Avars laid siege to the Imperial Capital, and planned a concerted attack on the city with the forces of the Persians, who were stationed on the Asiatic side of the Bosporus. It was the task of the Slavs to ferry the Persian army across the bay, but in a naval engagement with the Imperial fleet their vessels were destroyed. Discouraged over this failure, the Slavic forces raised the siege of the capital and returned home. The Avars continued the siege, hoping to capture Constantinople with Persian aid, but their own forces were destroyed the same year before the walls of the city, while the Persians were defeated the next year in 627 near Nineveh. Emperor Heraclius, the victor, followed up his success against the Avars with a policy of friendship toward the Slavs in order to detach them from the Avarian alliance. He also encouraged uprisings of such Slavs as had been under Avarian domination. Moreover he invited the Croats from their northern homeland to settle south of the Danube and along the Adriatic as his allies against the Avars. Thus in a short time the Avarian power became confined to the territory of the central Danube, including present-day Hungary, Slavonia and Sirmium. It was further weakened by civil wars, and liquidated altogether by the armies of Charlemagne a century later.

The next move of Emperor Heraclius (610-641) was to subjugate the Slavs. This plan never materialized because of the new dangers that beset the empire by the appearance of the Saracens, and their conquest of Palestine Syria and Egypt, even before the death of Heraclius. Later the imperial throne was occupied by a succession of weak rulers who could hardly exert any authority over their distant subjects. Thus the Slavs knew of the Emperor only by hearsay.

At the same time the policy of the Slavs was not to defy the authority of the Emperor, nor to devastate his lands. They returned to their old tribal organization and devoted their time to peaceful occupations. This was of great importance for the empire because its Slavic subjects populated the devastated areas, cultivating the deserted lands and rebuilding the cities from ruins. The emperors finally realized the utility of the Slavic colonization, and were greatly reassured by their aversion to military organization. This peaceful and friendly relationship between the Emperor Constantine (IV) Pogonate in 678 in an edict in which he formally recognized the Slavic possession of lands within the imperial territory in exchange for their loyalty to the sovereign. Thus the Slavic occupation of the Roman territory was legalized by the authority of the Emperor himself. The friendly relationship of the people and sovereign served as a basis for the gradual and peaceful reorganization of the old Slavic tribal system through consolidation of several tribes into a larger unit, and the ultimate formation of a national state.

Meanwhile the Croatian territory acquired definite contours and developed two organizing centers: one in Dalmatia, and one further north in the area comprised by the Danube, Sava and Drava Rivers. The first was called White Croatia, and the latter Pannonian Croatia. Another territory called "Red Croatia" extended from south of the Neretva River to Scutari Lake in Albania. It should be noted that the name of Dalmatia is one of the oldest historical names and is in existence to this day.

Compiled by Marko Marelich
Retired Mechanical Engineer
San Francisco, California USA
October 12, 2005