Julius Caesar Becomes The Undisputed Ruler of the Roman Empire

(Napisao: gosp. Marko Marelić -  S. Francisco - USA)
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From 60 to 50 B.C. Rome was dominated by a partnership of three men, known as the First Triumvirate from the Latin words for three and men. The partners were Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus. While Pompey strengthened his position at home, Julius Caesar (100-44 B.C.) sought additional fame abroad. In 58 B.C. he became the governor of Gaul (roughly modern France). In the next eight years Caesar's troops brought Gaul under Roman control. Caesar even successfully invaded Britain, although that invasion had few permanent results, and Caesar soon withdrew to Gaul. From east to west, the Roman Empire reached from the Rhine to the Atlantic.

Caesar Becomes Roman Ruler

Caesar, ambitious for further power, wanted the people back in Rome to know of his exploits in Gaul. He therefore wrote his Commentaries, a history of his military accomplishments in Gaul. (This work is known as Caesar's Gallic Wars and is read for its clean-cut prose style and vigorous narrative.) Caesar hoped that his military fame would soon make him leader of the Roman Empire.

Back in Rome, Pompey had become disturbed at Caesar's ambitions to take over the government. Since the death of Crassus, Pompey had been the only Consul and the leading figure in Rome. Leaning more and more to the side of the aristocrats, he had won the support of the Senate. Pompey and the senators warned Caesar that he was to return to Italy without his troops!

In 49 B.C. Caesar led his army to the Rubicon, a small river that separated Gaul from Italy. Here his decision would have to be made. Should he cross the river with his soldiers and risk a war with Pompey, or return to Rome alone and give up all his political ambitions? Caesar "checked his course and ordered a halt, while he resolved with himself, and often changed his opinion one way and the other, without speaking a word." Then he shouted, "The die is cast!" - and marched his troops across the Rubicon into Italy. Pompey, fearing Caesar's popularity with the people, fled to Greece. Here Pompey's army was defeated by Caesar's soldiers. Pompey escaped, but was finally killed in Egypt. By 45 B.C. Caesar was the undisputed Roman ruler.

Caesar: A Man of Many Traits

Julius Caesar, whom the Greek biographer Plutarch described as "a spare man who . . . struggled with his diseases," was granted many of the important powers of government. Although the Roman Republic continued to exist, the Senate and the other governmental bodies lost most of their authority. Caesar soon was made dictator for life, that is, he was given great power over the government and the people for as long as he lived.

How shall we describe the character of this general who directed a great empire? If we judge him by his wild conduct as a young man, he is a selfish and self-centered person. If we judge him by the large sum of money that he paid each of his soldiers after a great victory, he is very generous. Or to take another example, if we judge him by his plans to build time-saving canals and other waterways, he is concerned with helping others. If we judge him by the comments of the men who would later kill him, he is hungry for personal power.

Which is the true Caesar? Obviously, none of the four judgments by itself can do him justice. Caesar - like all human beings - was a mixture of many traits. He was neither all good nor all bad, neither all angel nor all devil. Caesar was a complex Roman with a passion "to do great things," and he found the glory that he sought in many different ways.

Caesar's Program Brings Reform

Although Caesar's character cannot be described by a single adjective, he is certainly recognized as an outstanding leader whose program greatly helped many people. As leader of the Roman Empire, he was responsible for many policies and rights that benefited the people in government and economics.

In government Caesar accomplished the following: (1) He gave additional rights of self-government to towns in Italy. (2) He extended citizenship privileges to many people in the provinces. (3) He reformed the administration of the provinces; corrupt governors were removed from office.

Among Caesar's accomplishments in economics were the following: (1) He developed colonies that could serve as farming settlements for the unemployed. (2) He introduced a fairer system of taxation for the colonies. (3) He started a program of public works so that there would be additional jobs for the unemployed. (4) He tried to limit the number of slaves who could work on estates, in order to provide jobs for free farmers. (5) He distributed land to the poor. (6) He established a law of bankruptcy, that is, a law to help people who could not pay their debts.

Caesar is Struck Down!

Caesar's accomplishments, his excellent administration, and his fairness to his enemies were hailed by many Romans. However, there were others who hated him for ousting Pompey and for acting like an absolute monarch. Some senators were afraid that Caesar would abolish the Republic completely and make himself the king. These opponents of Caesar decided to destroy him.

On March 15, 44 B.C. (called the Ides of March), a group of conspirators, headed by Cassius and Brutus, surrounded Caesar in the Senate. At a sign, they pulled his robe from his neck, and "with their naked daggers in their hands" they stabbed him twenty-three times. Thus fell Caesar - adventurer, conqueror, statesman - murdered before he had a chance to fully develop his program of reforms. Once he had said" "I have lived enough . . . for fame." Time has agreed that the tragedy of his murder in no way detracts from that fame.

Octavian Takes Caesar's Place

Two men challenged each other for Caesar's power - Anthony and Octavian. Anthony, a close friend of Caesar, was a military man. Octavian (63 B.C. to 14 A.D.) was Caesar's eighteen-year-old nephew and adopted son. At first Anthony and Octavian co-operated in running the empire. Then, in the course of directing the eastern part of the empire, Anthony went to Egypt where he came under the influence of their queen, Cleopatra. Although her beauty was not extraordinary, Cleopatra was a clever woman with a charming manner and a voice as pleasant as "an instrument of many strings." She used "a thousand" kinds of flattery to win Anthony to her side. It was rumored that she and Anthony planned to cut off the eastern part of the Roman Empire and rule it together. Octavian decided to stop them. In 31 B.C. Octavian's fleet met and defeated the forces of Anthony and Cleopatra in a great sea battle at Actium. Anthony and Cleopatra later committed suicide, and Octavian ruled the Roman world.

The Roman Republic Ends

During Octavian's rule, the Roman Republic came to an end. The governing bodies of the Republic gradually gave up their powers to Octavian. Soon they had granted him more rights than Caesar had. Yet, even after they had relinquished their duties, the Senate and the other bodies continued to meet.

Octavian was known as: imperator, commander of military forces; pontifex maximus, chief priest for the state; princeps senatus, first among all of the senators; and Augustus, revered ruler. Many features of the Republic seemed to exist, but actually Augustus Caesar (Octavian) had been made the first emperor - that is, the first ruler to hold complete authority over Rome and Roman Empire.

This change in government from a republic to rule by an emperor did not greatly disturb the people. Tired of constant war and confusion, they were grateful for a man who could bring order and peace. As Tacitus, a Roman historian, pointed out:

"The system by which every citizen shared in the government being thrown aside, all men regarded the orders of the emperor as the only rule of conduct and obedience; nor felt they any anxiety for the present, while [Augustus] . . . maintained the peace of the state."

Augustus Keeps Peace and Prosperity

Although Augustus conquered parts of Spain and fought to stabilize his northern boundary at the Rhine and Danube Rivers, he stopped his fighting and kept peace. This so-called Pax Romana, or Roman peace, was to last from 27 B.C. to 180 A.D. During this time the empire was free of any major wars.

Augustus brought more than peace to his people. Sensible in his judgments and moderate in his actions, he also introduced a program that contributed to the well-being of Rome and the empire. Among his accomplishments were the following: (1) the building of better roads; (2) the protection of sea routes and the encouragement of trade; (3) the establishment of an honest administration system for the provinces; (4) the building of an effective military system for guarding the frontiers; (5) the construction of public buildings, such as temples and theaters.

As a result of his accomplishments, Augustus helped the empire to prosper. Literature and other forms of cultural expression flourished during his time, and the period of Augustus is known as a "Golden Age."

Rome's Future in Doubt

When Augustus died in 14 A.D., the Senate paid him its highest honor by demanding that "upon their own shoulders they must bear [his] body to the pile [for burning]." Even as their emperor's body burned, worried men asked these questions: Would the next emperor be as wise as Augustus? Would he be able to keep the peace? Would the Romans trust his leadership? Would the provinces obey his orders?

The old Roman Republic had operated by a representative government. If one of its leaders died, the government could continue to rule the country safely and choose a new leader. Under the system of emperor rule, the emperor was the government. If the man he chose to take his place were a weakling or a fool, Rome and all its empire could be destroyed.

> Excerpts from "A WORLD HISTORY" by Daniel Roselle, copyright 1963, pgs 121-125

Compiled by Marko Marelich, Retired Mechanical Engineer
San Francisco, California USA
April, 2008