THE REVIVAL OF ANCIENT LEARNING

(Napisao: gosp. Marko Marelić -  S. Francisco - USA)
--> Marko Marelić osobna stranica

New Interest in Old Classics

New Interest, Not New Subjects Never at any time did Europeans of the Middle Ages, or even of the Dark Age, lose touch with or forget entirely the classical civilization of ancient Greece and Rome. The ancient languages continued to be used in church services - Latin in the West, and Greek in the East. Ancient architecture continued to serve as a model for Romanesque church buildings. Many a word in writing and many an arch in stone continued to stand as constant reminders of "the glory that was Greece and the grandeur that was Rome."

Nevertheless, in the centuries from the 14th to the 17th, the classical Greco-Roman civilization was rediscovered in a new and fruitful way. Up to this time European Christians had kept the classical languages, literature and art in a subordinate place - had used them merely as means to more important ends, in worship, in church-building, and in the study of theology and philosophy. Now they began to read Latin and Greek for themselves; that is because they found Latin and Greek instructive and delightful. And because they discovered something new and charming in Greek and Latin writings, they took a new interest in them, recognizing in them unsuspected and long neglected values.

The Classical Revival The awakening of this new interest in the old classics is what is meant by the "Classical Revival," or as it is sometimes called, the "Renaissance." It was basically the sympathetic and enthusiastic study of the masterpieces of ancient Latin and Greek literature - the "classics." It became the fashion - almost a fad. And this led to an appreciation, indeed a veneration, of all forms of ancient excellence. In short, the Classical Revival expanded into the widespread use of ancient models in speech and art, and represented in literature, architecture, sculpture, and painting, a reaction against medieval culture.

Great Pioneers The first great pioneer in the Classical Revival was an Italian, Francesco Petrarca (1304-1374), who spent his boyhood in Tuscany and his young manhood in Papal service at Avignon. Petrarch, we call him. Petrarch preached the revival and imitation of the classics. He came to be known in western Europe as "the scholar." The Pope supplied him with funds. Kings vied with one another in heaping benefits upon him. The Venetian Senate gave him the freedom of their city. Both the University of Paris and the city of Rome crowned him with laurel. Thus patrons supported the pioneer. Another pioneer in the 14th century was Boccaccio, also an Italian. And during the next century most scholars in western Europe, first in Italy and later in other countries, followed in the footsteps of Petrarch and Boccaccio.

Scholars from the East About the year 1400, due to Moslem Turkish pressure upon the Byzantine Empire, Greek scholars and teachers in considerable numbers left Constantinople and Greece, crossed the Adriatic, and settled in Italy. One of them, Chrysoloras, had a famous school in Florence, and gave lectures on Homer to crowds of students. Dusty attics became interesting. Castles and monasteries were ransacked for old manuscripts, and many long-lost or long-forgotten writings were rediscovered. Among them were some books by Tacitus, Cicero, Quintilian, and Lucretius. Classical study became not only the profession of scholars but also the fad of princes, and many a wealthy gentleman patronized and subsidized the "new learning."

Attitude of the Clergy At first the study of the classics aroused misgivings and even opposition on the part of ardent clergymen who feared that the pagan elements in the classics might have a dangerous influence upon Christianity. But gradually the "new learning" came to be tolerated, then encouraged and finally patronized by the clergy. Pope Nicholas V (1447-1455) was an outstanding classical scholar and a liberal patron of others. He hired hundreds of persons to copy old manuscripts. He awarded a prize for a metrical translation of Homer, and he collected in his palace - the Vatican, a large classical library. Many of his successors were like-minded. Indeed, the "new learning" reached a splendid climax at the opening of the 16th century under the patronage of Pope Leo X (1513-1521). He was a son of the celebrated Lorenzo de Medici, a wealthy and cultured leader of Florence. Leo X was at once the patron and the exemplar of the "new learning."

Italy, the School of Europe Just as Athens in the days of Pericles was the "School of Hellas," so Italy in the 16th century was the "School of Europe." It was in Italy that the revival of interest in the old classics took place. It was there that Petrarch, Boccaccio and other pioneers, as well as many early patrons, lived. It was to Italy that numerous Greek scholars and teachers came when the Turks were pressing Constantinople. It was in Italy that many of the great masterpieces of literature, architecture, and art that distinguish this age were produced. It was from Italy that teachers of the "new learning" and the "new art" went out to other countries of western Europe. And it was to Italy that students and scholars came from various countries of the West to drink of the plenteous fountains.

Here and There The zeal for classical studies reached its highest pitch in Italy in the first half of the 16th century and already it was communicated to other countries. In France the "new learning" received encouragement from the kings, particularly Francis I (1515-1547), who repeatedly intervened in the politics and wars of Italy and took back home with him scholars and artists and ancient masterpieces. In England it was championed, during the reigns of Henry Vii and Henry Viii, by the universities and by numerous clergymen and public officials, including the distinguished lawyer, Sir Thomas More. More's chief literary work, the famous "Utopia," was based on Plato's "Republic." At about the same time the "new learning" was diligently pursued in Germany, Spain, Scandinavia and Poland.

Erasmus The foremost classical scholar at the beginning of the 16th century was Erasmus (1469-1536). He was a native of Rotterdam in Holland, but during a long and studious life he traveled a good deal and lived at times in Germany, in France, in England, in Italy, and in Switzerland. He was trained in theology and became a priest, but it was as a lover of the classics and as a prolific writer that he won his title to fame.

Erasmus did not take himself as seriously as Petrarch took himself, but to an even greater degree as Petrarch he was an outstanding international figure. He corresponded with every important writer of his generation, and he was on terms of personal friendship with Pope Leo X, with Emperor Charles V, with Francis I of France, and with Henry VIII of England. He prepared and published a scholarly Greek edition of the New Testament; and in his own writings - his "Praise of Folly," his "Adages," and his "Colloquies" - which sparkled with quip and jest, he made fun of superstitions and prejudices, assailed ignorance, and lauded the classics and the life of classical scholarship.

From Center to Circumference In the 15th and 16th centuries Italy was the center of culture in western Europe. Many splendid courts and rich cities contended for the glory of becoming patrons of the flowering arts. Dictionaries and grammars were compiled; the study of ancient authors was made easier by translations and commentaries, and a classical Latin style became the proper mark of an educated man. New seminaries of education were established, first in Italy, and afterwards in other countries of Europe. In this dissemination of the "new learning," Germany - because of her neighboring location and vital contacts - became a close second to Italy.

Results of the Classical Revival

We may now summarize the results of the new study of the classics.

Enriched Curriculum It added the study and teaching of Latin and Greek to the curricula of schools, colleges and universities. From the 15th century to the present, Caesar, Cicero, Virgil, Xenophon, and Homer have occupied an honored place in education.

Humanism It produced "Humanism," the sympathetic and devoted study of mankind, in contrast to the theological devotion of the Middle Age. This came through a conviction that the Greek and Latin classics were peculiarly human. The friends of the new culture were called "Humanists," and their favorite subjects of study were termed the "humanities."

Reverence for Antiquity It tended to glorify antiquity and to discount the culture of the Middle Age. In this sense, the new study of the ancient classics was reactionary. It involved a turning back of men's minds to earlier times. Consequently, it was in the distant past of Greece and Rome, rather than in the recent past, that models for art and science, for society and government, for diplomacy and war, for human conduct in general, were sought. Kings of the 15th and 16th centuries derived their theories of autocracy not from the Middle Age but from antiquity. Machiavelli, who wrote a guidebook for princes, asserted that princes are not bound in public affairs by the rules of ordinary morality. It became the fashion for parents to name their children, not after Bible characters and Christian saints, but after pagan celebrities - Caesar, Cato, Virgil, Aeneas, Plutarch, Homer, Solon, Pericles, Diana, Julia, Augusta, and Lucretia.

Weakening of Christianity Its effects on Christianity were curious and contradictory. On one hand, it enriched the culture of Christian peoples. And when in the 16th century, rebellion arose in northern Europe against church authority, the foremost Humanists remained loyal to the Church and Pope; and some of them, including Sir Thomas More, died for their religious convictions. On the other hand, the new study of the old classics had some effects that ran counter to traditional Christian morals and which weakened the Church. Humanism, in its extreme form, was hostile to self-denial and self-sacrifice. Some churchmen, including some bishops and several Popes, became worldly. Many Humanists belittled theology and assailed monasticism. They raised doubts in the minds of the people about certain beliefs and practices of the Church. And a few Humanists actually grew skeptical about the truth and value of Christianity itself.

Stimulus to Vernaculars Indirectly Humanism gave a marked stimulus to the growth of vernacular literatures. Many persons who were unable to write Latin in the difficult classical forms, and who were afraid of being laughed at if they wrote it as then spoken, used Italian, French, English, German or some other vernacular.

Scientific Study of History It made the study of history more critical and more scientific. History came to be esteemed more for its own essential values - less as a mere adjunct to theology. A more critical spirit, demanding accuracy, was developed; and many additional historical manuscripts were found.

Advance in Art By directing sympathetic attention to classical architecture, painting, and sculpture, Humanism stimulated all kinds of art tremendously.

Literature and Art It is in the fields of art - in literature, architecture, sculpture and painting - that we find the most splendid and lasting effects of the classical revival. Not only were ancient masterpieces rediscovered and imitated, but important new works were produced. These new works combined pagan and Christian elements, thus making an artistic link between ancient times and the Middle Age, and likewise between the Middle Age and modern times.

Vernacular Literature Petrarch and his immediate successors wrote chiefly in Latin. There was a vast output of Latin writings, but it was not of permanent literary value. For a time, in the 15th century, the classical revival seemed to halt vernacular writing, but later, especially in the 16th and 17th centuries, important new works in the vernaculars, by Tasso, Cervantes, Camoens, Racine, Shakespeare, Milton, and others, were produced. So, we see, the classical revival reacted in many ways. When a light is kindled it shines in all direction.

Italian and German Writers Inasmuch as the revived study of the classics was pursued with keenest zeal in Italy and Germany, these countries did not produce as great vernacular writers in the 16th century as did other countries. Nevertheless, some fine things were produced. In Italian, Machiavelli wrote his historical works and his "Prince" - his guidebook for princes. In Italian, also, Ariosto wrote his "Orlando Furioso," a poem which was popular for a long time. In Italian, likewise, Tasso composed his bulky epic, "Jerusalem Delivered." In the same century in Germany, Martin Luther made a great contribution to German literature by his translation of the Bible.

Spanish and Portuguese Writers About the same time, Spanish literature, in the Castilian dialect, was made rich by a galaxy of geniuses. Cervantes, one of the greatest authors of all times, in his immortal "Don Quixote," poked fun at medieval feudalism and decadent chivalry. Lope de Vega composed some 1800 dramas - he really founded the Spanish theater. Calderon wrote allegorical poems of high merit. Portuguese literature, too, at this time reached its zenith in the "Lusiads" of Camoens. These constitute a patriotic epic dealing with Vasco de Gama's wonderful voyages and exploits. The "Lusiads" remind us a good deal of Virgil's "Aeneid" - that great classic no doubt influenced Camoens. The Spanish writers named above also were familiar with classical models, but they also made their own tongue the heiress of their art.

French Writers In the 16th century the sarcastic and clever Rabelais, more pagan than Christian, wrote "Gargantua," a series of fanciful tales combining rare art with humor of a rather vulgar sort. In the 17th century French literature entered its "golden age," being enriched by the masterpieces of Corneille, Racine, Moliere, Madame de Sevigne, and La Fontaine. Classical influences led to the "golden age," but all the great authors named wrote in French.

English Writers In England, Sir Thomas More's "Utopia" appeared in English in 1551; in 1667 Milton's famous epic, "Paradise Lost." Between those dates there was a continuous outpouring of great literature in English. Cranmer's "Book of Common Prayer" and the King James translation of the Bible; Edmund Spenser's graceful "Faerie Queene"; the plays of Ben Johnson and Christopher Marlowe; the essays of Francis Bacon; and the dramas of the supreme Shakespeare. Most of these writers showed the influence of the classics and of Humanism, either in subject matter or in form. But they wrote in English.

Renaissance Architecture Under the influence of the classical revival, Christian architecture underwent a revolution and had a remarkable development. The plain line of the Greek temple or the elegant gentle curve of the Roman dome was substituted for the lofty, leaping Gothic. A rounded arch replaced the pointed. Flying buttresses were discarded. And the ancient Greek orders - Doric, Ionic, and Corinthian - were employed again. The resulting "classical" or "renaissance" architecture was used for all manner of buildings, but reached its highest expression in the vast basilica of St. Peter, in Rome, erected in the 16th century under the personal direction of such great artists as Raphael and Michelangelo.

In Italy and Other Countries The revival of Greek and Roman architecture, like the revival of Greek and Latin literature, had its origin in Italy, and there it won most general acceptance; but like literary Humanism, it also spread to other countries. In France the kings, especially Francis I, admired the classical style in building and secured great numbers of Italian architects. As a result, the classical style appeared in many public structures in France. A conspicuous example is the celebrated palace of the Louvre, now the home of one of the world's largest art collection.

After 1550, classical architecture entered Spain, receiving encouragement from the King, Philip II. About the same time it appeared in the Netherlands and Germany. A little later it was seen in England. In 1619 a famous architect, Inigo Jones, designed and reared the classical banquet house in Whitehall, and in the second half of the same century Sir Christopher Wren, erecting the majestic St. Paul's Cathedral in London, made the new architecture popular in England.

Renaissance Sculpture Sculpture usually goes along with architecture, and change in one is attended with change in the other. As early as the 14th century Humanism showed itself in Italian sculpture. In the 15th century a special interest in classical models was fostered by the Medici of Florence, who not only became enthusiastic collectors of ancient works of art, but also promoted the scientific study of sculpture. The plastic art of Italy in the 15th and 16th centuries was strikingly akin to that of Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries before Christ.

Famous Sculptors The first great apostle of the "new sculpture" in the 15th century was Lorenzo Ghiberti, whose marvelous bronze doors on the baptistery in Florence were pronounced "worthy of being placed at the entrance of paradise." Slightly younger than Ghiberti was Donatello, who, among other achievements, fashioned the lifelike statue of St. Mark in Venice. Della Robbia, famed for his classical purity and simplicity of style, founded a school of sculptors in glazed terra-cotta. Michelangelo, sculptor, painter, and architect, did many things. His "David" at Florence is a masterpiece of classical dignity.

Beyond Italy The extension of classical sculpture beyond Italy was even more rapid than the spread of classical architecture. Italian sculptors were invited to England by Henry VII and to France by Francis I. In Spain the tomb of Ferdinand and Isabella was carved in classical style. Indeed, in the 16th century the "new sculpture" was to be found everywhere in western Europe.

Progress in Painting Painting underwent an even more significant change than sculpture. Prior to the 16th century most paintings were frescoes, pictures made directly on plaster walls, although a few were on wooden panels; but in the 16h century easel painting, detached pictures on canvas, wood, or other material, became common, and the use of oils was mastered. With these new methods the art of painting was perfected. In painting, progress at this time was not so much the result of imitating classical models as was the case in sculpture and architecture, for the reason that painting, being one of the most perishable of the arts, had preserved but few examples from ancient times. Accordingly, in the absence of classical pagan models, painting had to be more original, and it remained more thoroughly Christian. And because the painters of this period were supreme geniuses, painting reached a higher degree of perfection than did any of the other arts.

Four Great Painters In Italy in the 16th century, four of the world's greatest painters flourished - Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, and Titian. The latter two were mainly painters' the former two were equally great in Architecture and sculpture.

Leonardo da Vinci Da Vinci (1452-1519), a Florentine by birth and training, was patronized in turn by the Sforza family of Milan, by the Medici of Florence, and the royal house of France. He was a scientific painter, carefully studying the human body, the problems of perspective, and mastering the values of light and shade and color. His "Mona Lisa" now in the Louvre at Pairs, and his "Last Supper," a fresco in Milan, are well known. As an engineer, Leonardo built a canal in northern Italy and constructed fortifications around Milan. He was also a musician, a philosopher, and an ingenious craftsman, fond of toying with mechanical devices. One day when the king of France visited Milan, he was met by a large mechanical lion that roared and then reared itself upon its haunches, displaying upon its breast the coat-of-arms of France - it was the work of Leonardo. Leonardo also wrote extensively. He gathered about him a large group of disciples. And in his last years, spent in France as a pensioner of Francis I, he encouraged painting in that country as he had done in Italy. He probably influenced his age more than any other artist; and in himself he typified his age. The ideal of the Renaissance was the well-rounded, the "complete" man, interested in all branches of culture.

Michelangelo Michelangelo (1475-1564) a Florentine like Leonardo, was another peerless artist in various fields. It might almost be said of him that "jack of all trades, he was master of all." He was a painter of the first rank, a matchless sculptor, a great architect, an eminent engineer, a charming poet, and a profound student of anatomy and physiology. Dividing his time between Florence and Rome, he served the Medici family and a succession of art-loving Popes. It is impossible to give here any fair idea of his achievements. The tomb of Pope Julius II in Rome and the famous statue of David in Florence are examples of his work. The basilica of St. Peter in Rome, which he practically completed, is his most enduring monument. The ceiling frescoes in the Sistine chapel of the Vatican are famous marvels; and his grand fresco of the Last Judgment, in the same chapel, is probably the most celebrated painting in the world.

Raphael Sanzio Raphael (1483-1520) died at the age of 37, but surpassed even Michelangelo in harmonious beauty of painting. For sheer charm, the "divine" Raphael stands with a peer. He lived mainly in Rome, rich and favored, and was for a time an architect of St. Peter's basilica. He also did some work as a sculptor. But it is as the greatest of the 16th century painters that he earned his fame.

Titan Tiziano Vecelli (1477-1576), known as Titian, who lived to be 99, was the chief representative of the Venetian school of painting. Bright coloring distinguished the pictures of this school. Titian was the official painter for the city of Venice and was patronized by two kings, Emperor Charles V and Philip II of Spain. He acquired wealth and fame, but was not a universal genius like Leonardo da Vinci or Michelangelo. His one and supreme gift was that of oil painting; and in the witchery of light and coloring his work has never been surpassed.

Painting in Other Countries From Italy as a center the "new painting" became the heritage of all western Europe. Italian painters were taken to France by Francis I, and French painters became their pupils. Philip II of Spain encouraged painting in his extensive dominions, and his successors employed such noted painters as Rubens, Van Dyck, Velasquez, and Murillo. In Germany the best painting was exemplified by Albrecht Durer, who received his inspiration from Italian work. Durer was patronized by the Emperor Maximilian, was on friendly terms with all the great painters of his time, and painted the portrait of Erasmus. But it was as an engraver and woodcarver, rather than as a painter, that his reputation was earned. His greatest engravings, such as "The Knight and Death" and "St. Jerome in His Study," set a standard for all later engravers.

Christian in Character Painting, throughout its "golden age" of the 16th and 17th centuries, was mainly Christian in subject matter and treatment. But it would hardly have reached the perfection it did without the Classical Revival and Humanism. It was much the same with music.

Renaissance Music Music, so far as western Europe is concerned, began its "golden age" in the 16th century. It was then that the crude musical instruments of the Middle Age began to take on modern forms and sweeter tones. The harsh rebeck became the violin, and the harpsichord foretold the modern piano. And there appeared a master-composer, Palestrina (1524-1594), who was an organist and choir-master for the Pope, and is justly esteemed as the father of modern church music. He directly influenced much of the Italian music of the 17th century and the splendid German productions of the 18th century.

Natural Science The Humanists of the 15th and 16th centuries generally ignored natural science, and, in a way, natural science was retarded rather than advanced by the Classical Revival, nevertheless, in science western Europe of the Middle Age was in advance of ancient Greece and Rome. And it can be said that science and invention in the 16th century were just at the dawn of a glorious day.

Compiled by Marko Marelich
Retired Mechanical Engineer
San Francisco, California USA
October 7, 2005